Sunday, February 14, 2016

MODERN ISLAMIC THOUGHT IN TURKEY

PREFACE

            In the middle century, Western  has developed, it was characterized by several technological advances and modern inventions such as glass lenses    (1250 ), stationery printing ( 1450 ), and the others. The science and technology development in addition to causing positive things those that are negative, while in the other side of eastern Muslims  was kneeling under oppression and well below  the rest of grandeur of the cultures  in the past has gone, but in the  west hemisphere  (West Asia) in 1300 was approximately Turkey also established kingdom, but they were less cultured. They rely solely on military progress, their physical courage and strong, but they are a threat to Europe.[1]
            Islam has entered into local Turkish and Islamic Hijri century began growing rapidly , the Turks reached the top of the grandeur of the year 1520-1566 then got sick title ( The Sick Men ) because the Turks were also paralyzed at the end of the 19th century .
            Updates in Turkey , covering the four phases of the reforms initiated by Sultan Mahmud II , which changed the traditional madrasa madrasa without general knowledge become knowledgeable public . Tanzimat that efforts to regulate and improve the organizational structure of the interim government and the Young Ottomans Young Turks want to change the system of constitutional government, not with absolute power .
            The peak of the progress Turkey is at the time of Sultan Mahmud II , among others in 1453 to conquer the Byzantine Roman of Istanbul,  they controlled the area around the middle of the sea and centuries Turkey as a country that needs to be considered and taken into account by policy experts from Europe.[2] Thus in this paper will explain more about modern thought in Turkey.
           
DISCUSSION

A.      SULTAN MAHMUD II
                Sultan Mahmud II was born in Saray, July 1785. He is Sultan Abd Al-Hamid’s son and had a traditional education, including religious knowledge , knowledge of government , history and literary Arabic , Turkish and Persian. He was appointed as Sultan in 1807 and dead  in 1839. In 19 centuries, the condition of Turkey was broken because uncontrolable of politic from center government to regional government. [3]
              In the first part of the period of empire were occupied by the war with Russia and subjecting business areas that have a large autonomy of power, war with Russia was completed in 1812.  After his power as the central government of the Ottoman Empire grew stronger , Sultan Mahmud II saw that his time has come to start a renewal efforts that have long existed in his mind.[4]
        Sultan Mahmud II, known as the Sultan who does not want to be tied on the  tradition and does not hesitate to violate the old customs . Previous sultans regarded themselves was high and does not deserve to get along with people. Therefore, they always isolate themselves and submission of the people  about the stewardship of subordinates. Then arise their presumption which not like a normal human and State magistrates dared not sit when they met  Sultan.
        This aristocratic tradition was violated by Mahmud II. He took a democratic attitude and always appeared in public to speak or cut the ribbon at the official ceremonies. Ministers and other dignitaries of the country make it a habit to sit together if he cames to. The kingdom clothing which was specified for the Sultan and the clothes commonly used by Ministers and other dignitaries exchange it with a more modest clothing. The signs of the majesty was lost, so that the common people were also encouraged to leave traditional clothing and replace it with western clothes. This eliminates the difference a change of clothes and a real social status appear in traditional clothing.[5]
       Incredible powers which according to tradition was owned by the Ottoman rulers to limit it. Pasha or Governor's power to impose the death punishment with a hand gesture was deleted. The punishment kill for the future can only will be issued by a judge. The confiscation of the property of the state are discarded or put to death also was deleted.
       Sultan Mahmud II also makes changes in the organization of the Ottoman Empire rule. According to the tradition of the Ottoman Empire headed by a Sultan who have the temporal power and spiritual power. As an authority, he wears  the title of Sultan and as a spiritual header of Muslims he wears the title of Caliph. Thus, the Ottoman king has two forms of power, authority and power to rule the State broadcast and defend Islam. [6]
        The important changes are held by Sultan Mahmud II and who later had a great influence on the development of the reform in the Ottoman Empire is a change in education. As in the other Muslim world at that time, school was the only public institution in the Ottoman Empire. School only taught religion, while general Knowledge is not taught. Sultan Mahmud II realized that traditional School education no longer compatible with the demands of the times of the 19th century.[7]
        In the his reign the people less enterprise entering their children to the school and prioritize send them learn practical skills in industrial companies. Therefore, he is making changes in the curriculum to increase knowledge-school common knowledge in it, such as in other Muslim world at that time was difficult. Traditional school is still running but beside the Sultan founded two schools of general knowledge. Mekteb-i Ulum-u Edebiye (School of Literature). Students for these two schools was selected from high quality School graduates.
         In addition, Sultan Mahmud II also built  the Military School, School of Engineering, School of Medicine and School of Surgery. School graduates continue teaching in many Schools recently established. In addition to establishing the School of Sultan Mahmud II also sent students to Europe that after returning to their homeland also have an influence in the spread of new ideas in the Ottoman Empire.
        The reforms of Sultan Mahmud II (in the top) held that the basis for the next reform  of thought and effort in the Ottoman Empire of the 19th century and 20th century Turkey .[8]
B.      TANZIMAT
Tanzimat term derived from the Arabic word meaning Tanzimat arrangements, preparation and repair. In the renewal held during the Tanzimat was a continuation of the efforts undertaken by Sultan Mahmud II, who held many legislative reforms and legislation. In the terminology Tanzimat reform is an attempt to organize and develop and improve the structure of government organizations, social, economic and cultural, between the years 1839-1871 AD. Abdul Majid inducted into Turkey replaces Sultan Mahmud II in 1839. Abdul Majid announced charter Hatt - i Sherif of Gulhane ( Charter OF Liberties ) in 1939, as a basis for reform in the fields of administration, taxation, law, education of minorities, and military. During the reign of Abdul Majid Islamic institutions driven by a new kind of agency. Scholars in the field of education the power handed over to the Ministry of Education which was formed in 1847. Education refers to educational models entirely Western, started primary school to university in Europe where people are given opportunity to be involved in it.[9]
Namik Kemal, a leader figure of the Young Ottomans, previously was one of the drafters of government aplicate of Yag basis for the Tanzimat. According to him, the failure is caused by the Tanzimat have confused between reform political and economical. This update is for better represent the interests of the Sultan gave people the chance to get involved. Sultan 's absolute power has betrayed the people's sovereignty. Luxury and rampant corruption among officials undermined the empire into bankruptcy.[10] Tanzimat important figures among others: Mustafa Rashid Pasha, Mustafa Sami, Sadek Mehmed Pasha and Ali Pasha Rif'at as described below :
a.      Mustafa Rashid Pasha (1880-1858). The main leaders of the reform in the             Tanzimat era was Mustafa Rashid Pasha, he was born in Istanbul in 1800, then became Madrasah educated government employees. Mustafa Rashid Pasha in 1034 was appointed ambassador of France to the area, but that he has also been appointed as the Ambassador of the Ottoman Empire in several other countries. After that he was called home to be Secretary of State and in the end he was appointed prime minister.[11]
            Renewal of which the most important is the effort of government centralization and modernization of the armed forces in 1839. The consequence of the centralized, organized society through the elimination of traditional Millet system. Instead formed provincial representative system the opportunity to give an opinion in the matter of the kingdom and the administration. Updates are run Rashid Pasha hampered by clerical opposition and international unrest as a result of the Crimean war. Sultan Abdul Aziz, who was sworn in replacing Abdul Majid in 1861, is actually anti- Western and opposed to liberal reforms. However, the update can not be postponed again because of the European diplomatic pressures. Memorandum governments of France, Britain, and Austria in 1867 to the Sultan emphasized the active steps to implement reform, as referred to in the Charter Hatt-i Humayun.
b.     Sami Mustafa Pasha ( d. 1855 )
            Sami Mustafa Pasha has a lot of experience in foreign countries, among others, in Rome, Vienna, Berlin, Brussels, London, Paris and other countries as an employee and ambassador. In the opinion of the Sami Mustafa Pasha, the progress of the European nation lies in their excellence in the field of science and technology. For others saw as religious tolerance and the ability of Europe to escape from the bonds of religion, besides it is also universal education for both men and women so that Europeans are generally good at reading and writing.
       c . Mehmed Pasha Sadik Rif'at
            One other thought leaders Tanzimat more widely known is Rif'at   Pasya Mehmed Sadik was born in 1807 and died in 1856 AD His education was completed at the school, he went to school lessons      literature, which specifically held for prospective employees palace. In 1834 he was appointed Assistant Secretary of State, three years later he        was appointed Minister of Foreign Affairs and later finances Minister.
            Principles of thought and its renewal is Sultan princes should be    subject to state laws and other regulations. State shall respect the law (          state law ), codified law, administration, setting the rights and obligations     of the people, reorganization, armed forces, education and skills as well as           the construction of the Islamic Ottoman Bank in 1840.
            The ideas are triggered Sadik Rif'at at that time was a new thing because people do not know the rules, laws, rights and freedoms. at that time more farmers become slaves to the landlords and the people slaves to the Sultan. Thought Rif'at line with the thinking Sadik Mustafa Rashid Pasha who at that time had a position as Secretary of State .
d.     Ali Pasha (1815-1871)
He was born in 1815 in Istanbul and died in 1871 , the son of a servant leader . In the age of 14 years he has been appointed as an employee. In 1840 was appointed Ambassador and London before becoming ambassador he is often a staff representative of the Ottoman Empire in the various countries of Europe and in 1852 he replaced the Rashid Pasha as Prime Minister.
                                    Renewal efforts include: recognition of all spiritual streams at that time, carry a guarantee worship each, libelous ban because of religion, ethnicity and language, guarantees the opportunity to learn, the judicial system and others.             Updates are carried out by figures Tanzimat reform era was not entirely on the support even received criticism from both inside or outside the Ottoman Empire because the movements to realize the Tanzimat reforms based on the ideas of Western liberalism and left the archetypal religious law, this is one of the the main reason that the movement has failed in an attempt tannzimat updates. Thus, reform efforts led by Prime Minister Ali Pasha still get into trouble because they do not have the support that asolut Sultan described the nature of the reactionary and corrupt government in implementing reform. Ali Pasha was an incredible statesman. However the closeness of the Young Ottomans led to it always clashed with the absolute power of the Sultan. Ali Pasha was dismissed in the tenure of one year old yet. For several years, the government re-mastered conservative groups . At the time , the kingdom 's economy worsened, Bulgaria and Sebia declared rebellion against istambul. Sultan Abdul Aziz finally had to admit his government bankrupt. On May 30, 1876 he handed over the fatwa of Sheikh al - Islam. Murad V was picked up from his retreat and was crowned the new Sultan of the new Turkey.

C. YOUNG OTTOMAN
As it is said that the Tanzimat reforms sought has not got the results as expected, even got criticism from outside the intellectuals. Failure by the Tanzimat in replacing an absolute constitutional whip for subsequent efforts. To change the absolute power then arises effort or movement of intellectuals continue efforts Tanzimat. This movement is known as the Young Ottomans-Yeni Usmanilar ( Young Ottoman Movement ) was established in 1865.[12]
            Intellectual group is form second group be know with Young Usmani, Young Ottomans. This Group is form a community that was organize the meeting in Paris and London between 1867-1871. They Political view many influence of secular concept and revolutionary about traditional Islamic precept.[13]
Ottoman was originally an association of young men founded in 1865 with the aim of changing the absolute reign of the Ottoman Empire into a constitutional government. After an open secret princes fled to Europe in 1867 and that's where they made ​​their movements Ottoman Young. The Young Ottoman leaders are doing a lot of secrets in the movement against the absolute power of the Sultan. But their political stance it is known by the Sultan . Finally, they are many who go to Europe and there they develop strength. So after the Turkish situation safely back , they were many who return home and continue their ideals, especially about the ideas of renewal.
Some leaders of the movement that brought new winds of democracy and constitutional government that upholds the people's power is not absolute power. Among the figures are: Zia Pasha, Kemal Nanik and Midhat Pasha.[14]
a.   Zia Pasha
Zia Pasha was born in Istanbul in 1825 and died in 1880. He was the son of a customs office workers in Istanbul. Education after finishing school established in Sulaemaniye Sultan Mahmud II in a young age he became a government employee, then the efforts of Mustafa Rashid Pasha in 1854 he was accepted into one of the secretaries of the Sultan. This is where he can find out about the system and how the Sultan ruled by authoritarian. For the purposes of his new assignment, he studied the French language and in a short time he mastered and can translate French books into Turkish. Due to a misunderstanding with Ali Pasha then he went to Europe in 1867 and lived there for five years.
 When he was in Europe that's a lot of experience in get it . Some thoughts eventually lead to the renewal effort. Renewal efforts, among others, the Ottoman Empire in his opinion should be the system of constitutional government, not with absolute power. According to the advanced European countries as there is no longer an absolute rule, all the constitutional system of government. In a constitutional system of government there should be a House of Representatives. Zia then argued the hadith " Difference of opinion among my Ummah is a mercy from God ", as a reason for the need for the House of Representatives, in which dissent was accommodated and expressed criticism of the government for the benefit of the people entirely.
As anyone who obey the religion of Islam, Zia actually do not fully agree on the reforms just plucks Western ideas uncritically. That's why she's seen the correspondence between the interests of the people with the idea of ​​renewal that comes from the West. In such case, he also does not agree with those who say Islam that can be regarded as a barrier to progress.
b . Midhat Pasha
His full name Hafidh Ahmad Midhat Pasha Syafik , born in 1822 in Istanbul know. Religious education derived from his own father. In the age of ten years he has memorized the Quran, therefore he was named al-Hafidh. His education is the highest in the University of Al-Fatih. He included the Young Ottoman leaders who have a significant role in the renewal of ideas. He was the son of a religious judge in the teen years have been an employee in the Bureau of the Prime Minister.[15]
In 1858 he was given the opportunity to travel to Europe for six months. After a few moments later, he was appointed governor in various regions. With the ability and extraordinary skill eventually the Sultan appointed him prime minister in 1872. When Sultan Abdul Hamid ruling replace Sultan Murad V, he was re-elected as Prime Minister. When the Sultan direct that agreement will provide support over the movements. Sultan also appears to provide fresh air for reform of the Ottoman Young group.
Some of the reform measures, such as reduce the power of the executive and giving greater powers to the legislative group. This group is also trying to push through constitutional system that has been established by using the term Islamic terms-terms , such as meetings for representatives of the people, for the people's sovereignty and bai'ah sharia to the constitution. With this effort systems of Western governments gradually acceptable group of scholars and of Shaykh al-Islami is actually much against the idea of ​​renewal in the past.
Dated December 23, 1876 semi-constitutional autocracy was signed by Sultan Abdul Hamid. The contents of this constitution remains largely reflect the real steps of reform the system of government, because the Sultan was so great. One example is Article 113 of the Act are made, says that in an emergency the Sultan should provide specific announcements, and may arrest or to love people who are considered dangerous to the interests of the state. Thus, the Sultan of the article is given great authority to execute judgment is absolute . Precisely this article later used to catch people who are not liked the Sultan , including the Young Ottoman leaders Midhat Pasa.
c . Namik Kemal
He includes the leading thinkers of the Ottoman Young, born in 1840 in Tekirdag. He comes from a family nigrat. Her parents providing home education in subjects besides Arabic, Persian, French language is also given. Therefore, in a very young age he had mastered a variety of languages​​. In the teen years, he was appointed translator office clerk and then moved into a servant in the palace of the Sultan.[16]
Namik Kemal much influenced by the ideas of Abraham Sinasih (1826-1871) Western-educated and many have views of modernism. Nanik have high Islamic spirit, so even though that very influential. Western thought but still uphold Islamic moral renewal ideas, he said Turkey is currently retreating because of weak political and economic. In order to promote economic and political Turkey should be no change in the government system.
To realize the ideal system of government, the authorities must uphold the interests of the people. Because the interests of the people into the principle of the state, then the state must be democratic, that is based on government support and interest. Nanik desired by Kemal is a democratic government and the rule is similar in its opinion is not in conflict with Islamic teachings. Islamic state was formed and led by four caliphs great, actually has style democracy.
Bai'ah system contained in the caliph ruling essentially a people's sovereignty. Through bai'ah people expressed their approval of appointment of bags new caliph. Thus, bai'ah a social contract and a contract that occurs between people and it can be canceled if the caliph ignore its obligations as Head of State. In the teachings of Islam, called al-maslahah al-‘amma and this is actually of benefit to the public.[17]
Caliph should not take a position or action contrary to the public beneficiaries. General Maslahat therefore is a form of public opinion. Caliph should always pay attention to and respect public opinion. Furthermore, the basic consensus is important in terms of governance in Islam. This deliberation system strengthening democratic style Islamic government. Makers in Islamic law is the law is the cleric who conducted the government. By bringing arguments as above, Namik Kemal argues that the constitutional system of government is not a heresy in Islam. Among other ideas are brought Namik patriotism Turkey, but the whole area of the Ottoman empire. The concept of homeland is not cramped. As a person who inspired the teachings of Islam, he saw the need for unity of all Muslims held under the leadership of the Ottoman Empire, an Islamic state is the largest and strongest at that time.[18]

E. YOUNG TURKS
After the dissolution of parliament and the destruction of the Young Ottoman movement, then the Sultan Abdul Hamid ruled with absolute power over. Freedom of speech and writing was not there. In such an atmosphere there arose opposition movement against the government of Sultan Abdul Hamid obsolut as in times past to the Sultan Abdul Aziz. Opposition movement among colleges, take the form of secret societies, among scholars and leaders fled the country and there continued their opposition and military movements among incarnated in the form of secret committees. Opposition groups is then known as the Young Turks.
Young Turkey is the first reform group that concerted of industry to valid of ordinance about industry first time, Law for Encouragenment industry, of 1909 year the next to update of 1915 year. Notiwithstanding, they just clucthed a little success in industry, but the Turkey was have a network for the economy building of program in forthcoming time. And in education the woman also get attention, especially to basis level education that respecting before is not.[19]
In this Era, the woman community also get more attention, if at Tanzimat period woman community was get learn opportunity  in basis level, so at this period they get opportunity to learn in middle level and high level was open end. and in Turkey group maybe also already fail to give a constitutional government, but they has a success to debilitate the center government power in Istanbul.[20]
Young Turk leaders, among others, Ahmad Reza (1859-1930), Mehmed Murad (1853-1912) and Prince Sahabuddin (1887-1948).
a.       Ahmad Reza
Ahmad Reza was the son of a former member of parliament named Injilis Ali.[21] In his school education in agriculture to someday be able to work and try to change the fate of poor farmers and continued his study in France upon his return from France he worked in the ministry of agriculture, but it turns out the government's relationship with the poor little farmers, because the ministry was more preoccupied with bureaucracy. Then he moved to the ministry of education, but here too preoccupied with bureaucracy but less preoccupied with education.
Updates are performed by Ahmad Reza include government wants to change absolute to constitutional government. Because according to rescue of Ottoman Empire from collapse is through education and positive science and not theology or metaphysic. The existence and implementation of educational programs that will either intend to constitutional government.
b . Mehmed Murad (1853-1912)
Mehmed Murad comes from the Caucasus and fled to Istanbul in 1873 after the failure of the uprising of Sheikh Shamil in that area. He studied in Russia and here met with western ideas, but the influence of Islamic thought on him.
He argues that Islam is not the cause of the withdrawal of the Ottoman Empire, and not also the people, but because that in a place setback on Sultan who ruled in absolute terms. Therefore, according to him, the Sultan should be limited. In this case he argues that in Islam the same discussion with constitutional in the Western world. He suggested the Board of Supervisors established the assignment of overseeing the legislation so as not to be violated by the government. Besides, it also held the supreme Shari'ah board members composed of representatives of Islamic countries in Africa and Asia and its chairman Sheikh al-Islam of the Ottoman Empire.[22]
c . Prince Sahabuddin (1887-1948)
Prince Sultan Hamid Sahabuddin is the nephew of the mother, being from the father is the grandson of Sultan Mahmud II, therefore he is a descendant of the king.[23] But mother and father fled to Europe to distance themselves from the power of Abdul Hamid, then the thus Sahabuddin life is more influenced by Western thought. According to the principal is social change, not a replacement of the Sultan. Turkish society as well as other Eastern societies have a collective style, and a collective society are not easily changed in towards progress. In a collectivist society people do not believe in yourself, therefore it depends on the group or tribe while he thinks society can advance is not a lot of people who depend on the other, but can to stand alone and on their own to alter the situation.















CONCLUSION

            From the above discussion we can conclude that modernity - renewal is done by Sultan Mahmud II is the foundation or basis for the subsequent renewal of thought and effort , among others : Tanzimat reforms , reforms in the Ottoman Empire of the 19th century and 20th century Turkey . Where are intended Tanzimat reform is an attempt to organize and develop and improve the structure of the Tanzimat government organizations but have not been successful as expected by important figures Tanzimat , Mustafa Rashid Pasha , Mustafa Sami , Mehmed Sadek , Rif'at Pasha and Ali Pasha .
            Then proceed with the renewal of the Young Ottomans , which businesses renewal is to change the constitutional system of government with not with absolute power after the dissolution of parliament and young otoman destruction followed by renewal of a young turks .

















REFERENCES
http://aip-aly-arfan.blogspot.com/2011/12/pemikiran-moderen-dalam-islam-di-  turki.html,  has accessed on February 23rd, 2014.

http://kampinfo.blogspot.com/2012/10/pembaharuan-islam-modern-di-turki.html,          has accessed on February 23rd, 2014.

http://PPMDI/Erik Abdul Karim Perkembangan Modern Islam di Turki.htm has   accessed on March 24th, 2014.
Mughni, Syafiq. Sejarah Kebudayaan Islam Di Turki. Pamulang Timur: Logos    Wacana Ilmu. 1997.
Sodiqin, Ali, dkk. Sejarah Peradaban Islam. Yogyakarta: LESFI. 2004.
Yatim, Badri. Sejarah Peradaban Islam. Jakarta: PT. Raja Grafindo Persada.        1993.










               [1] http://aip-aly-arfan.blogspot.com/2011/12/pemikiran-moderen-dalam-islam-di-turki.html,  has accessed on February 23, 2014.
               [2] http://aip-aly-arfan.blogspot.com/2011/12/pemikiran-moderen-dalam-islam-di-turki.html,  has accessed on February 23, 2014.

               [3] Syafiq Mughni, Sejarah Kebudayaan Islam Di Turki, (Ciputat: Logos Wacana Ilmu, 1997), pages. 122.
                    2http://aip-aly-arfan.blogspot.com/2011/12/pemikiran-moderen-dalam-islam-di-turki.html,  has accessed on February 23, 2014.


               [5]http://aip-aly-arfan.blogspot.com/2011/12/pemikiran-moderen-dalam-islam-di-turki.html,  has accessed on February 23, 2014.
               [6]http://aip-aly-arfan.blogspot.com/2011/12/pemikiran-moderen-dalam-islam-diturki.html,  has accessed on February 23, 2014.

               [7] http://kampinfo.blogspot.com/2012/10/pembaharuan-islam-modern-di-turki.html


               [8] http://aip-aly-arfan.blogspot.com/2011/12/pemikiran-moderen-dalam-islam-di-turki.html,  has accessed on February 23, 2014.
[9] Ali Sodiqin, Dkk, Sejarah Peradaban Islam, (Yogyakarta: LESFI, 2004), Pages. 145.
[10] Ibid, Pages 147.
[11] Ibid, Pages 146.
[12] http://PPMDI/Erik Abdul Karim Perkembangan Modern Islam di Turki.htm.
[13] Syafiq A. Mughni, Sejarah Kebudayaan Islam Di Turki, ( Pamulang Timur: Logos Wacana Ilmu, 1997), pages. 132.
[14]Syafiq A. Mughni, Sejarah...,pages 133.
[15]Syafiq A. Mughni, Sejarah Kebudayaan Islam Di Turki, ( Pamulang Timur: Logos Wacana Ilmu, 1997), pages.134.
[16] Badri Yatim, Sejarah Peradaban Islam, (Jakarta: PT. Raja Grafindo Persada, 1993), pages. 103.
[17] http://PPMDI/Erik Abdul Karim Perkembangan Modern Islam di Turki.htm.
[18] http://PPMDI/Erik Abdul Karim Perkembangan Modern Islam di Turki.htm.
[19] Syafiq Mughni, Sejarah Kebudayaan Islam Di Turki, ( Pamulang Timur: Logos Wacana Ilmu, 1997), pages. 140.
[20] Syafiq Mughni, Sejarah..., pages. 140-141.
[21] Syafiq Mughni, Sejarah...,pages. 139.
[22] http://PPMDI/Erik Abdul Karim Perkembangan Modern Islam di Turki.htm.
[23] Syafiq Mughni, Sejarah Kebudayaan Islam Di Turki, ( Pamulang Timur: Logos Wacana Ilmu, 1997), pages. 140.