PREFACE
In the middle century, Western has developed, it was characterized by
several technological advances and modern inventions such as glass lenses (1250 ), stationery printing ( 1450 ), and
the others. The science and technology development in addition to causing
positive things those that are negative, while in the other side of eastern
Muslims was kneeling under oppression
and well below the rest of grandeur of
the cultures in the past has gone, but
in the west hemisphere (West Asia) in 1300 was approximately Turkey
also established kingdom, but they were less cultured. They rely solely on
military progress, their physical courage and strong, but they are a threat to
Europe.[1]
Islam has entered into local Turkish
and Islamic Hijri century began growing rapidly , the Turks reached the top of
the grandeur of the year 1520-1566 then got sick title ( The Sick Men ) because
the Turks were also paralyzed at the end of the 19th century .
Updates in Turkey , covering the
four phases of the reforms initiated by Sultan Mahmud II , which changed the
traditional madrasa madrasa without general knowledge become knowledgeable
public . Tanzimat that efforts to regulate and improve the organizational
structure of the interim government and the Young Ottomans Young Turks want to
change the system of constitutional government, not with absolute power .
The peak of the progress Turkey is
at the time of Sultan Mahmud II , among others in 1453 to conquer the Byzantine
Roman of Istanbul, they controlled the
area around the middle of the sea and centuries Turkey as a country that needs
to be considered and taken into account by policy experts from Europe.[2] Thus
in this paper will explain more about modern thought in Turkey.
DISCUSSION
A.
SULTAN MAHMUD
II
Sultan Mahmud II was
born in Saray, July 1785. He is Sultan Abd Al-Hamid’s son and had a traditional
education, including religious knowledge , knowledge of government , history
and literary Arabic , Turkish and Persian. He was appointed as Sultan in 1807
and dead in 1839. In 19 centuries, the
condition of Turkey was broken because uncontrolable of politic from center
government to regional government. [3]
In the first part of the period of empire were
occupied by the war with Russia and subjecting business areas that have a large
autonomy of power, war with Russia was completed in 1812. After his power as the central government of
the Ottoman Empire grew stronger , Sultan Mahmud II saw that his time has come
to start a renewal efforts that have long existed in his mind.[4]
Sultan
Mahmud II, known as the Sultan who does not want to be tied on the tradition and does not hesitate to violate
the old customs . Previous sultans regarded themselves was high and does not
deserve to get along with people. Therefore, they always isolate themselves and
submission of the people about the
stewardship of subordinates. Then arise their presumption which not like a
normal human and State magistrates dared not sit when they met Sultan.
This
aristocratic tradition was violated by Mahmud II. He took a democratic attitude
and always appeared in public to speak or cut the ribbon at the official
ceremonies. Ministers and other dignitaries of the country make it a habit to
sit together if he cames to. The kingdom clothing which was specified for the
Sultan and the clothes commonly used by Ministers and other dignitaries
exchange it with a more modest clothing. The signs of the majesty was lost, so
that the common people were also encouraged to leave traditional clothing and
replace it with western clothes. This eliminates the difference a change of
clothes and a real social status appear in traditional clothing.[5]
Incredible powers which according to
tradition was owned by the Ottoman rulers to limit it. Pasha or Governor's
power to impose the death punishment with a hand gesture was deleted. The
punishment kill for the future can only will be issued by a judge. The
confiscation of the property of the state are discarded or put to death also
was deleted.
Sultan Mahmud II also makes changes in the
organization of the Ottoman Empire rule. According to the tradition of the
Ottoman Empire headed by a Sultan who have the temporal power and spiritual
power. As an authority, he wears the
title of Sultan and as a spiritual header of Muslims he wears the title of
Caliph. Thus, the Ottoman king has two forms of power, authority and power to
rule the State broadcast and defend Islam. [6]
The
important changes are held by Sultan Mahmud II and who later had a great
influence on the development of the reform in the Ottoman Empire is a change in
education. As in the other Muslim world at that time, school was the only
public institution in the Ottoman Empire. School only taught religion, while
general Knowledge is not taught. Sultan Mahmud II realized that traditional
School education no longer compatible with the demands of the times of the 19th
century.[7]
In
the his reign the people less enterprise entering their children to the school
and prioritize send them learn practical skills in industrial companies.
Therefore, he is making changes in the curriculum to increase knowledge-school
common knowledge in it, such as in other Muslim world at that time was
difficult. Traditional school is still running but beside the Sultan founded
two schools of general knowledge. Mekteb-i
Ulum-u Edebiye
(School of Literature). Students for these two
schools was selected from high quality
School graduates.
In
addition, Sultan Mahmud II also built
the Military School, School of Engineering, School of Medicine and
School of Surgery. School graduates continue teaching in many Schools recently
established. In addition to establishing the School of Sultan Mahmud II also
sent students to Europe that after returning to their homeland also have an
influence in the spread of new ideas in the Ottoman Empire.
The reforms of Sultan Mahmud II (in the top)
held that the basis for the next reform
of thought and effort in the Ottoman Empire of the 19th
century and 20th century Turkey .[8]
B.
TANZIMAT
Tanzimat
term derived from the Arabic word meaning Tanzimat arrangements, preparation
and repair. In the renewal held during the Tanzimat was a continuation of the
efforts undertaken by Sultan Mahmud II, who held many legislative reforms and legislation.
In the terminology Tanzimat reform is an attempt to organize and develop and
improve the structure of government organizations, social, economic and
cultural, between the years 1839-1871 AD. Abdul Majid inducted into Turkey
replaces Sultan Mahmud II in 1839. Abdul Majid announced charter Hatt - i
Sherif of Gulhane ( Charter OF Liberties ) in 1939, as a basis for reform in
the fields of administration, taxation, law, education of minorities, and
military. During the reign of Abdul Majid Islamic institutions driven by a new
kind of agency. Scholars in the field of education the power handed over to the
Ministry of Education which was formed in 1847. Education refers to educational
models entirely Western, started primary school to university in Europe where
people are given opportunity to be involved in it.[9]
Namik Kemal,
a leader figure of the Young Ottomans, previously was one of the drafters of
government aplicate of Yag basis for the Tanzimat. According to him, the failure is caused by
the Tanzimat have confused between reform political and economical. This update is for better represent the interests of
the Sultan gave people the chance to get involved. Sultan 's absolute power has
betrayed the people's sovereignty. Luxury and rampant corruption among
officials undermined the empire into bankruptcy.[10]
Tanzimat important figures among others:
Mustafa Rashid Pasha,
Mustafa Sami, Sadek Mehmed Pasha and Ali Pasha Rif'at as described below :
a.
Mustafa
Rashid Pasha (1880-1858). The main leaders of the reform in the Tanzimat era was Mustafa Rashid Pasha, he was born in
Istanbul in 1800, then became Madrasah educated government employees.
Mustafa Rashid Pasha in 1034
was appointed ambassador of France to the area, but that he has also been
appointed as the Ambassador of the Ottoman Empire in several other countries.
After that he was called home to be Secretary of State and in the end he was
appointed prime minister.[11]
Renewal of which the most important is the effort of
government centralization and modernization of the armed forces in 1839. The
consequence of the centralized, organized society through the elimination of
traditional Millet system. Instead formed provincial representative system the
opportunity to give an opinion in the matter of the kingdom and the
administration. Updates are run Rashid Pasha hampered by clerical opposition
and international unrest as a result of the Crimean war. Sultan Abdul Aziz, who
was sworn in replacing Abdul Majid in 1861, is actually anti- Western and
opposed to liberal reforms. However, the update can not be postponed again
because of the European diplomatic pressures. Memorandum governments of France,
Britain, and Austria in 1867 to the Sultan emphasized the active steps to
implement reform, as referred to in the Charter Hatt-i Humayun.
b. Sami Mustafa Pasha ( d. 1855 )
Sami Mustafa Pasha has a lot of experience in foreign
countries, among others, in Rome, Vienna, Berlin, Brussels, London, Paris and
other countries as an employee and ambassador.
In the opinion of the Sami
Mustafa Pasha, the progress of the European nation lies in their excellence in
the field of science and technology. For others saw as religious tolerance and
the ability of Europe to escape from the bonds of religion, besides it is also
universal education for both men and women so that Europeans are generally good
at reading and writing.
c . Mehmed Pasha Sadik Rif'at
One other thought leaders Tanzimat more widely known
is Rif'at Pasya Mehmed Sadik was born in 1807 and died in 1856
AD His education
was completed at the school, he went to school lessons literature, which specifically held for prospective employees palace.
In 1834 he was appointed Assistant Secretary
of State, three years later he was appointed Minister of Foreign Affairs and later finances Minister.
Principles of thought and its renewal is Sultan
princes should be subject to state laws and other regulations. State
shall respect the law ( state law ), codified law, administration, setting the
rights and obligations of the people, reorganization, armed forces, education
and skills as well as the construction of the Islamic Ottoman Bank in 1840.
The ideas are triggered Sadik Rif'at at that time was
a new thing because people do not know the rules, laws, rights and freedoms. at
that time more farmers become slaves to the landlords and the people slaves to
the Sultan. Thought Rif'at line with the thinking Sadik Mustafa Rashid Pasha
who at that time had a position as Secretary of State .
d.
Ali
Pasha (1815-1871)
He
was born in 1815 in Istanbul and died in 1871 , the son of a servant leader .
In the age of 14 years he has been appointed as an employee. In 1840 was
appointed Ambassador and London before becoming ambassador he is often a staff
representative of the Ottoman Empire in the various countries of Europe and in
1852 he replaced the Rashid Pasha as Prime Minister.
Renewal efforts include: recognition of all spiritual
streams at that time, carry a guarantee worship each, libelous ban because of
religion, ethnicity and language, guarantees the opportunity to learn, the
judicial system and others. Updates are carried out by figures Tanzimat reform era
was not entirely on the support even received criticism from both inside or
outside the Ottoman Empire because the movements to realize the Tanzimat
reforms based on the ideas of Western liberalism and left the archetypal
religious law, this is one of the the main reason that the movement has failed
in an attempt tannzimat updates. Thus, reform efforts led by Prime Minister Ali
Pasha still get into trouble because they do not have the support that asolut
Sultan described the nature of the reactionary and corrupt government in
implementing reform. Ali Pasha was an incredible statesman. However the closeness
of the Young
Ottomans led to it always clashed with the absolute power of the Sultan. Ali Pasha was dismissed in the tenure of one year old
yet. For several years, the government re-mastered conservative groups . At the
time , the kingdom 's economy worsened, Bulgaria and Sebia declared rebellion
against istambul.
Sultan Abdul Aziz finally had to admit his government bankrupt. On May 30, 1876
he handed over the fatwa of Sheikh al - Islam. Murad V was picked up from his
retreat and was crowned the new Sultan of the new Turkey.
C. YOUNG OTTOMAN
As it is said that the Tanzimat
reforms sought has not got the results as expected, even got criticism from
outside the intellectuals. Failure by the Tanzimat in replacing an absolute
constitutional whip for subsequent efforts. To change the absolute power then
arises effort or movement of intellectuals continue efforts Tanzimat. This
movement is known as the Young Ottomans-Yeni Usmanilar ( Young Ottoman Movement
) was established in 1865.[12]
Intellectual group is form second group
be know with Young Usmani, Young Ottomans. This Group is form a community that
was organize the meeting in Paris and London between 1867-1871. They Political
view many influence of secular concept and revolutionary about traditional
Islamic precept.[13]
Ottoman was originally an
association of young men founded in 1865 with the aim of changing the absolute
reign of the Ottoman Empire into a constitutional government. After an open
secret princes fled to Europe in 1867 and that's where they made ​​their
movements Ottoman Young. The Young Ottoman leaders are doing a lot of secrets
in the movement against the absolute power of the Sultan. But their political
stance it is known by the Sultan . Finally, they are many who go to Europe and
there they develop strength. So after the Turkish situation safely back , they
were many who return home and continue their ideals, especially about the ideas
of renewal.
Some leaders of the movement that
brought new winds of democracy and constitutional government that upholds the
people's power is not absolute power. Among the figures are: Zia Pasha, Kemal
Nanik and Midhat Pasha.[14]
a.
Zia Pasha
Zia Pasha was born in Istanbul in
1825 and died in 1880. He was the son of a customs office workers in Istanbul.
Education after finishing school established in Sulaemaniye Sultan Mahmud II in
a young age he became a government employee, then the efforts of Mustafa Rashid
Pasha in 1854 he was accepted into one of the secretaries of the Sultan. This
is where he can find out about the system and how the Sultan ruled by
authoritarian. For the purposes of his new assignment, he studied the French
language and in a short time he mastered and can translate French books into
Turkish. Due to a misunderstanding with Ali Pasha then he went to Europe in
1867 and lived there for five years.
When he was in Europe that's a lot of
experience in get it . Some thoughts eventually lead to the renewal effort.
Renewal efforts, among others, the Ottoman Empire in his opinion should be the
system of constitutional government, not with absolute power. According to the
advanced European countries as there is no longer an absolute rule, all the
constitutional system of government. In a constitutional system of government
there should be a House of Representatives. Zia then argued the hadith "
Difference of opinion among my Ummah is a mercy from God ", as a reason
for the need for the House of Representatives, in which dissent was
accommodated and expressed criticism of the government for the benefit of the
people entirely.
As anyone who obey the religion of
Islam, Zia actually do not fully agree on the reforms just plucks Western ideas
uncritically. That's why she's seen the correspondence between the interests of
the people with the idea of ​​renewal that comes from the West. In such case, he also does not
agree with those who say Islam that can be regarded as a barrier to progress.
b .
Midhat Pasha
His full name Hafidh Ahmad Midhat
Pasha Syafik , born in 1822 in Istanbul know. Religious education derived from
his own father. In the age of ten years he has memorized the Quran, therefore
he was named al-Hafidh. His education is the highest in the University of
Al-Fatih. He included the Young Ottoman leaders who have a significant role in
the renewal of ideas. He was the son of a religious judge in the teen years
have been an employee in the Bureau of the Prime Minister.[15]
In 1858 he was given the opportunity
to travel to Europe for six months. After a few moments later, he was appointed
governor in various regions. With the ability and extraordinary skill
eventually the Sultan appointed him prime minister in 1872. When Sultan Abdul
Hamid ruling replace Sultan Murad V, he was re-elected as Prime Minister. When
the Sultan direct that agreement will provide support over the movements.
Sultan also appears to provide fresh air for reform of the Ottoman Young group.
Some of the reform measures, such as
reduce the power of the executive and giving greater powers to the legislative
group. This group is also trying to push through constitutional system that has
been established by using the term Islamic terms-terms , such as meetings for
representatives of the people, for the people's sovereignty and bai'ah sharia
to the constitution. With this effort systems of Western governments gradually
acceptable group of scholars and of Shaykh al-Islami is actually much against
the idea of ​​renewal in the past.
Dated December 23, 1876
semi-constitutional autocracy was signed by Sultan Abdul Hamid. The contents of
this constitution remains largely reflect the real steps of reform the system
of government, because the Sultan was so great. One example is Article 113 of
the Act are made, says that in an emergency the Sultan should provide specific
announcements, and may arrest or to love people who are considered dangerous to
the interests of the state. Thus, the Sultan of the article is given great
authority to execute judgment is absolute . Precisely this article later used
to catch people who are not liked the Sultan , including the Young Ottoman
leaders Midhat Pasa.
c .
Namik Kemal
He includes the leading thinkers of
the Ottoman Young, born in 1840 in Tekirdag. He comes from a family nigrat. Her
parents providing home education in subjects besides Arabic, Persian, French
language is also given. Therefore, in a very young age he had mastered a
variety of languages​​. In the teen years, he was appointed translator office clerk and
then moved into a servant in the palace of the Sultan.[16]
Namik Kemal much influenced by the
ideas of Abraham Sinasih (1826-1871) Western-educated and many have views of
modernism. Nanik have high Islamic spirit, so even though that very influential.
Western thought but still uphold Islamic moral renewal ideas, he said Turkey is
currently retreating because of weak political and economic. In order to
promote economic and political Turkey should be no change in the government
system.
To realize the ideal system of
government, the authorities must uphold the interests of the people. Because
the interests of the people into the principle of the state, then the state
must be democratic, that is based on government support and interest. Nanik desired
by Kemal is a democratic government and the rule is similar in its opinion is
not in conflict with Islamic teachings. Islamic state was formed and led by
four caliphs great, actually has style democracy.
Bai'ah system contained in the
caliph ruling essentially a people's sovereignty. Through bai'ah people
expressed their approval of appointment of bags new caliph. Thus, bai'ah a
social contract and a contract that occurs between people and it can be
canceled if the caliph ignore its obligations as Head of State. In the
teachings of Islam, called al-maslahah al-‘amma and this is actually of benefit
to the public.[17]
Caliph should not take a position or
action contrary to the public beneficiaries. General Maslahat therefore is a
form of public opinion. Caliph should always pay attention to and respect
public opinion. Furthermore, the basic consensus is important in terms of
governance in Islam. This deliberation system strengthening democratic style
Islamic government. Makers in Islamic law is the law is the cleric who
conducted the government. By bringing arguments as above, Namik Kemal argues
that the constitutional system of government is not a heresy in Islam. Among
other ideas are brought Namik patriotism Turkey, but the whole area of the
Ottoman empire. The concept of homeland is not cramped. As a person who
inspired the teachings of Islam, he saw the need for unity of all Muslims held
under the leadership of the Ottoman Empire, an Islamic state is the largest and
strongest at that time.[18]
E. YOUNG TURKS
After the dissolution of parliament
and the destruction of the Young Ottoman movement, then the Sultan Abdul Hamid
ruled with absolute power over. Freedom of speech and writing was not there. In
such an atmosphere there arose opposition movement against the government of
Sultan Abdul Hamid obsolut as in times past to the Sultan Abdul Aziz.
Opposition movement among colleges, take the form of secret societies, among
scholars and leaders fled the country and there continued their opposition and
military movements among incarnated in the form of secret committees.
Opposition groups is then known as the Young Turks.
Young Turkey is the first reform
group that concerted of industry to valid of ordinance about industry first
time, Law for Encouragenment industry, of 1909 year the next to update of 1915
year. Notiwithstanding, they just clucthed a little success in industry, but
the Turkey was have a network for the economy building of program in
forthcoming time. And in education the woman also get attention, especially to
basis level education that respecting before is not.[19]
In this Era, the woman community
also get more attention, if at Tanzimat period woman community was get learn
opportunity in basis level, so at this
period they get opportunity to learn in middle level and high level was open
end. and in Turkey group maybe also already fail to give a constitutional
government, but they has a success to debilitate the center government power in
Istanbul.[20]
Young Turk leaders, among others,
Ahmad Reza (1859-1930), Mehmed Murad (1853-1912) and Prince Sahabuddin
(1887-1948).
a.
Ahmad Reza
Ahmad Reza was the son of a former
member of parliament named Injilis Ali.[21]
In his school education in agriculture to someday be able to work and try to
change the fate of poor farmers and continued his study in France upon his
return from France he worked in the ministry of agriculture, but it turns out
the government's relationship with the poor little farmers, because the
ministry was more preoccupied with bureaucracy. Then he moved to the ministry
of education, but here too preoccupied with bureaucracy but less preoccupied
with education.
Updates are performed by Ahmad Reza
include government wants to change absolute to constitutional government.
Because according to rescue of Ottoman Empire from collapse is through
education and positive science and not theology or metaphysic. The existence
and implementation of educational programs that will either intend to
constitutional government.
b .
Mehmed Murad (1853-1912)
Mehmed Murad comes from the Caucasus
and fled to Istanbul in 1873 after the failure of the uprising of Sheikh Shamil
in that area. He studied in Russia and here met with western ideas, but the
influence of Islamic thought on him.
He argues that Islam is not the
cause of the withdrawal of the Ottoman Empire, and not also the people, but
because that in a place setback on Sultan who ruled in absolute terms.
Therefore, according to him, the Sultan should be limited. In this case he
argues that in Islam the same discussion with constitutional in the Western
world. He suggested the Board of Supervisors established the assignment of
overseeing the legislation so as not to be violated by the government. Besides,
it also held the supreme Shari'ah board members composed of representatives of
Islamic countries in Africa and Asia and its chairman Sheikh al-Islam of the
Ottoman Empire.[22]
c .
Prince Sahabuddin (1887-1948)
Prince Sultan Hamid Sahabuddin is
the nephew of the mother, being from the father is the grandson of Sultan Mahmud
II, therefore he is a descendant of the king.[23]
But mother and father fled to Europe to distance themselves from the power of
Abdul Hamid, then the thus Sahabuddin life is more influenced by Western
thought. According to the principal is social change, not a replacement of the
Sultan. Turkish society as well as other Eastern societies have a collective
style, and a collective society are not easily changed in towards progress. In
a collectivist society people do not believe in yourself, therefore it depends
on the group or tribe while he thinks society can advance is not a lot of
people who depend on the other, but can to stand alone and on their own to
alter the situation.
CONCLUSION
From the above discussion we can conclude that modernity - renewal is done by Sultan Mahmud II is the foundation or basis for the subsequent renewal of thought and effort , among others : Tanzimat reforms , reforms in the Ottoman Empire of the 19th century and 20th century Turkey . Where are intended Tanzimat reform is an attempt to organize and develop and improve the structure of the Tanzimat government organizations but have not been successful as expected by important figures Tanzimat , Mustafa Rashid Pasha , Mustafa Sami , Mehmed Sadek , Rif'at Pasha and Ali Pasha .
Then proceed with the renewal of the Young Ottomans ,
which businesses renewal is to change the constitutional system of government
with not with absolute power after the dissolution of parliament and young
otoman destruction followed by renewal of a young turks .
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[9] Ali Sodiqin, Dkk, Sejarah Peradaban Islam, (Yogyakarta:
LESFI, 2004), Pages. 145.
[10] Ibid, Pages 147.
[11] Ibid, Pages 146.
[13] Syafiq A. Mughni, Sejarah
Kebudayaan Islam Di Turki, ( Pamulang Timur: Logos Wacana Ilmu, 1997),
pages. 132.
[14]Syafiq A. Mughni, Sejarah...,pages 133.
[15]Syafiq A. Mughni, Sejarah Kebudayaan Islam Di
Turki, ( Pamulang Timur: Logos Wacana Ilmu, 1997), pages.134.
[19] Syafiq Mughni, Sejarah
Kebudayaan Islam Di Turki, ( Pamulang Timur: Logos Wacana Ilmu, 1997),
pages. 140.
[23] Syafiq Mughni, Sejarah
Kebudayaan Islam Di Turki, ( Pamulang Timur: Logos Wacana Ilmu, 1997),
pages. 140.